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某某 师 范学 院

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本科毕业论文

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教师用语及其对学习者输入的影响

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姓名: 王  梅

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    学号: 2005061218

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指导教师姓名：     李  文  凤   

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职        称：     教      授   

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单        位：     外国语学院   

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专 业 名 称 ：     英      语   

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申请学位级别：     学      士   

论文提交日期：     2009年5月   

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学位授予单位：    某某师范学院  

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二○○九年五月

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Teacher Talk and Its Effect on Learner Input

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Wangmei

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Supervisor

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Li Wenfeng

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A Thesis Submitted as a

Partial Fulfillment for the Degree of

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B.A. in English

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SCHOOLOF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

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YUXINORMAL UNIVERSITY

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May,2009

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Except where referenceis made in the text of the thesis, this thesis contains no material publishedelsewhere or extracted in whole or part from a thesis presented by me foranother degree or diploma.

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No other person’s workhas been used without due acknowledgement in the main text of the thesis.

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This thesis has not beensubmitted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any tertiaryinstitution.

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Signed:

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Date:

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Firstly,I would like to give special thanks to Professor Li Wenfeng，my supervisor, who hasdevoted much of his precious time to afford me a lot of advice and revisionwith his great patience. Without his patient assistance and friendlyencouragement, it would not be possible for me to complete this thesis in sucha short period of time without reducing its scholarly quality.

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Then,I want to express my heartfelt thanks to my dear Professor Xu Xianming, mythesis writing course teacher who taught me not only knowledge but also theright way to do scientific research.

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Withthe development of language acquisition studies, many scholars began to shifttheir attention to input, which the learners hear or receive and from which heor she can learn. Teacher talk, used by the teacher, is a very important partof input. In the context of China, almost all the learners learn Englishthrough classes. English is learned as a type of input. So teacher talk is of crucialimportance in language classroom. It is not only for the effective managementof the classroom, but also for the process of language acquisition. Teachertalk is the medium to achieve the teaching objective. To a large extent, aclass is successful or not depends on the quality or effectiveness of teachertalk. So the thesis will survey and discuss how the teacher talk influenceslearner input from the quality, speed, pause and difficulty.

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Keywords:teacher talk; learner input; quality; speed; difficulty

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目前，许多语言习得研究者的研究方向已转向学习者的输入，学习者输入就是学习者从听到、接收到或从教师用语中所学到的东西。教师用语 ，顾名思义就是教师所使用的语言。教师用语对学习者输入起着非常重要的作用。教师用语不仅是教师管理课堂的工具，也是学习者知识习得的过程。同时，教师用语还是达到教学目标的媒介。特别 是对在中国这种环境下的外语学习者，外语学习几乎是通过课堂教学来完成的，英语的学习就是一种语言习得的过程，所以教师用语对学习者输入有着非同凡响的作用。教师用语是学习者输入的重要资源渠道，这篇文章将主要从教师用语的质量、速度和难度三方面来调查研究教师用语对学习者输入的影响。

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关键词：教师用语；学习者输入；质量；速度；难度

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Contents

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Statement of Authorship. i

Acknowledgement ii

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Abstract iii

摘 要... iv

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Ⅰ. Introduction. 1

1.1 The Background of the Research. 1

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1.2 The Aims and Reasons of This Thesis. 1

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1.3 The Research Questions of the Thesis. 2

Ⅱ.The Significance of the Study of Teacher Talk in English Teaching and Learning. 2

2.1The Growth of Interest in Teacher Talk. 2

2.2The Importance of Teacher Talk in Student-centeredClass. 3

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Ⅲ.Theoretical Foundations for the Teacher Talk and Learner Input 3

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3.1 Teacher talk. 3

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3.1.1 TheDefinition of Teacher Talk. 3

3 1 .2 The Main Findings in the Field of Teacher Talk. 4

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3.2 Review of Related Literature. 5

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3.2.1 Krashen’s Theory of Comprehensible Input 5

3.2.2 Behaviorist Theories of Transfer 6

3.2.3 Interaction Hypothesis. 6

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3.3 The Role of Input in Second Language Learning. 7

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Ⅳ.The Design of the Research. 7

4.1 Design of Research Questions. 7

4.2 The Instrument of the Research. 7

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4.2.1 Classroom Observation and Audio Recording. 8

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4.2.2 Questionnaire. 8

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4.3 Procedures of Data Collection and Analysis. 9

Ⅴ.Findings and Discussions. 9

5.1 The Quality of Teacher Talk. 9

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5.2 The Speed and Pause of Teacher Talk. 10

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5.3 The Modification and Comprehension of Teacher Talk. 11

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5.4 Suggestions for Language Teachers. 12

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Ⅵ.Conclusion. 13

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References. 14

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Appendix 1. 15

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Appendix 2. 17

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Generallyspeaking, English talk is very important, not only for imparting English knowledgeand organizing class activity, but also for facilitating acquisition processesand eliciting learners’ output. It embodies the success and failure of theteaching schedule. In addition, it is the chief source of comprehensible targetlanguage input that the learner is likely to receive and an example to imitate.It is therefore necessary to discuss this issue in more details.

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Withthe development of the economy, the people’s life style and education view havechanged a lot. They find out that teacher talk plays a very important role in foreignlanguage learning. For example, some parents send their children abroad forlearning English; the institutes of language training schools, which have thenative language-speaking teachers, are popular. This proves that the teachertalk affects the learner input to a large extent. The teacher talk makes amodel for the students to imitate. The standard pronunciation of teacher talkalso can help the language learner to improve their listening. At the sametime, the teacher talk may pay more attention to the important points of theknowledge, vocabulary and grammar. In a word, teacher talk is very important inforeign language learning and teaching. More attention must be paid to it. Butthere are many problems in most of our English class in middle school. First, traditionally,most of language teachers in China are native Chinese people and they learnEnglish in the Chinese context. So according to their learning and teaching experience,they give lessons in most of native language. At the same time, there are someproblems in their pronunciation. This phenomenon is not good for learner’simitation and listening. The use of teacher talk is the main way to impart theknowledge of English: phonology, vocabulary and grammar. In this condition,teachers use the instruction English to impart the knowledge, which includesvocabulary, grammar and text. We could expect such teacher talk to be ofinterest, which is a main factor of the optimal input. Then although in resentyears, teachers have begun to realize the importance of teacher talk, littleresearch has been done in China.

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Forthese reasons, the author want to do the survey and analyze the teacher talk inEnglish class from the following five aspects: the quality of teacher talk, thespeed of the teacher talk, the pause of the teacher talk and the difficulty ofthe teacher talk. After doing this survey, I hope it can offer help for thelanguage teachers to enrich the knowledge about teacher talk and improve theeffect of the learner input.

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Fromthe former part, it is obvious that the qualities of teacher talk, the speed ofthe teacher talk, the pause of the teacher talk and the difficulty of theteacher talk are very important. So I want to do the research from theseaspects. The research questions are:

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1.How teacher talk influences the learner input?

2.What should teachers do in designing teacher talk?

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“Successfuloutcomes may depend on the type of language used by the teacher and the type ofinteraction occurring in the classroom. The growth of interest in the analysisof teacher talk and interaction has been stimulated by the rejection oflanguage teaching method as the principal determinant of successfullearning.’’(Ellis 1985:143) According to the theory, a teacher’s ability of language,especially the ability of using language in organizing class activities willdecide his/her teaching effect to a great extent. In fact, the quality of ateacher’s language in class is an epitome of his/her basic personal quality. Ifa teacher cannot master his or her teaching language well in quality, he or shewill not teach well.

Intraditional English teaching, the teacher was the center of the class. But now,the center of the class has shifted to students. Instead of teacher-centeredmethod, student-centered method dominates the class teaching and learning. Thestudents are the subject of teaching and learning. The teacher is regarded asan important part of teaching environment, and the teacher’s language is themain resource of information. So teacher talk is a resource from which studentslearn English, a model for them to imitate and a bridge for them to graspEnglish.

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Thereare many definitions of the teacher talk. Teacher talk refers to the amount ofspeech supplied by the teacher in and out of the classroom rather than thestudents in L2/FL (Cook, 1996:119). Generally speaking, English teacher talkcan be divided into four categories: classroom English, instruction English,teacher-student interaction, teacher feedback English.（1）Classroom English ：Classroom English refersto the particular language used by teachers to organize teaching, such as “Goodmorning.” “Class begin.” and “Open your books, please.” The use of classroomEnglish is very helpful to activate the English atmosphere in class.（2）Instruction English：Instruction English is thelanguage used by English teachers when imparting knowledge, includingvocabulary, grammar and text. (3) Teacher-student Interaction: Teacher-studentinteraction refers to the language used in class between the teacher and thestudents when they talk, discusses, ask and answer questions. When teaching,teachers must interact with students. (4) Teacher Feedback English: Teacherfeedback English is comments or information that students receive on theirpragmatic performance in class from the teacher. From the learners view, the useof feedback is in repairing their utterances and can help them developmenttheir target language and other subjects (Chaudron, 1988). In a word, thefunctions of these four categories of teacher talk can be summarized  (1) stimulus— to stimulate the learners’efforts, (2) reinforcement— to strengthen the learners’ performance and (3)information/knowledge —to benefit learners’ by the correction of answers.

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Inlanguage classroom, teacher talk is of crucial importance, not only forclassroom organization, but also for student’s language learning in the processof language learning because the teacher talk is an instrument of implementingteaching plan, and also the main source of language input for second languageor foreign language learners in the language classroom (Nunan 1991:189). 

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According to Chaudron (1983), teacher talkhas many prominent features in phonology, lexis, syntax and discourse: (1) Onthe aspect of phonology, teachers often exaggerate their pronunciation, prolongtheir pause times, slow down their rate of speech, speak more loudly andclearly. (2) On the aspect of lexis, teachers often use basic words in a highfrequency. (3) On the aspect of syntax, teachers use short sentences frequentlyand clauses in a low frequency. The sentence structure is complete. (4) On theaspect of discourse, teachers often use first person pronouns, conversationsand self-repetitions. According to Chaudron (1988), the characters of theteacher talk can be summarized as the following: Firstly, for the rate ofspeech, when talking to the second language learners or less proficientlearners, teachers are likely to slow down their rate of speech. Then, for thepause, teachers often pause longer to L2 learners than to other nativespeakers. At last, for the modifications in vocabulary, syntax and discourse,in order to make the L2 learners understand or comprehend better, teachers varythe difficulty of vocabulary and utterance in accordance with the learners’ proficiencylevel. paper51.com

Krashen in1985 firstly proposes the InputHypothesis. The Input Hypothesis claims that the exposure of the comprehensibleinput is not only necessary but also sufficient for second language learning totake place. Krashen (1985: 2) claims “Humans acquire language in only oneway—by understanding messages or by receiving ‘comprehensible input’… We movefrom i, our current level, to i+1, the next level along the natural order, byunderstanding input containing i+1”. And then Krashen (1985: 2) puts forward tofurther ideas about the hypothesis: if input is understood, and there is enoughof it, the necessary grammar is automatically provided. He also mentioned thatalthough speaking does not contribute directly to acquisition, it encourages CI(comprehensible input). The information of communication helps the learners adjustthe input to make it more comprehensible.

From Krashen’s Hypothesis, we could see that he considersthat the native speakers or more fluent speakers can help learners improvetheir input through conversation by making the input more comprehensible.Therefore, the role of input is much emphasized by Krashen.

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Behaviorists believed that language learning isthe result of imitation, practice, feedback on success, and habit formation.According to the behaviorists, all learning takes place through the sameunderlying process, whether verbal or non-verbal. Learners receive input fromspeakers in their environment and they form association between words andobjects or events. These associations become stronger as experiences are repeated.Then learners are encouraged for their correct imitation. In the foreign language-learningclassroom, teacher talk can provide native speakers more fluent speaker qualityfor the learners to imitate, and then make association with learners. Althoughthe learners may have errors when they make conversations, they have practicedand imitated. So the learners also can improve their effect of input.

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Long (1983) has argued that much second languageacquisition takes place through conversational interaction. His views are basedon his observation of interactions between learners and native speakers. Heagrees with Kreshen that comprehensible input is necessary for languageacquisition. However, he is more concerned with the question of how input ismade to be comprehensible. According to Long, there are no cases of beginning –levellearners acquiring a second language from native-speaker talk, which has notbeen modified in some way. In fact, he says, research shows that nativespeakers consistently modify their speeches in sustained conversation withnon-native speakers. Long infers that modified interaction must be necessaryfor language acquisition. This relationship has been summarized as following:Interaction modification makes input comprehensible. Then the comprehensibleinput can promote acquisition. At the same time, interaction modification alsocan promote acquisition.

There are various factors influencing SLA, butthe factor of input is considered as a key factor among external factors. Becauseonly after the learner has accessed to something, the language acquisition cantake place. So more attention should be paid to input.

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In the survey, the author attempts to explore howthe teacher talk influences the learner input. So this paper mainly puts itsfocus on the following aspects: (1) How teacher talk influence the learnerinput from the quality of pronunciation and grammar. (2) How the speed andpause of teacher talk influence the learner input. (3) What the role of themodification or comprehensible teacher talk plays.

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There are three kinds of research instruments:experiments investigate, actions investigate and natures investigate (Allright,D. & K. Bailey, 1991). According to Ellis (1990), the aim of researchingthe classroom teacher talk is to describe the action of the class, in order torecord the perspective detail of the classroom teaching. And the specific recordsare the basic of understanding and explain what happens in the class. So the author chose thenatural method to survey the teacher talk.

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In this paper, without letting the teachers knowthe intention, the author first personally visits the three randomly chosenclasses taught by the three randomly chosen teachers respectively, then theauthor makes observations of the classroom teaching processes. At the sametime, the writer records the whole ‘classroom discourse’ with a MP3 player,which has the function of audio recording and as well as audio playing .At thesame time, the author makes sure the audio records are transcribed and are keptfor inspection. Meanwhile, the author makes an interview with 120 students whowere randomly chosen from the classes the author attended and 40 students foreach class.

Afterconsidering the comparatively small sample of 3 teachers and three classes,which have a certain degree of chance and one-sidedness, this research alsoadopts the method of questionnaire as a supplementary instrument. With thepurpose to obtain more comprehensive and accurate information and data, thisquestionnaire is designed for the students to answer according to their ownopinions about the usual facts of the classroom teaching and learning. At thesame time, the author let the students make comment on the real situation ofteacher talk and classroom. Therefore, when the statistical results ofclassroom audio recording and questionnaire investigation are combined andcompared, this research could also be assured to be reliability in a certaindegree.

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The data are collected in 6 periods of Englishlistening and speaking lessons for 3 classes of grade one of senior high schoolstudents for 45 minutes each. Chinese English teachers give all of the classes.For the lacking of English teacher, one of them learned English in vocationsand then became an English teacher. First, the author respectively visits these3 randomly chosen classes. Therefore, the whole process of classroom teachingand discourse is observed and recorded (with a MP3 recorder) in a natural andnormal way. The audio recordings are turned into scripts. After that, the itemsabout the teacher talk and classroom interaction are counted and put intodifferent categories. Next, the author asks the teachers and gets thepermission to investigate their students with questionnaire. It is made clearto them that the investigation is just for evaluation task and that their nameswill not be disclosed. Then the questionnaire investigations are finished andcollected quickly with the teachers permission and their students’cooperation..At last, the valid 120 copies of answered questionnaires in the real 120 copiesare counted in different items and changed into percentage of each item(Appendix I).

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Accordingto the recordings, the author counts the amount and percentages ofquestionnaires. The results concerning the quality of teacher talk in foreignlanguage teaching classroom are presented as table 5.1:

Table5.1 the total amount and percentage concerning the quality of teacher talk(pronunciation and grammar)

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Class

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Amount

Percentages (%)

Class1 (69)

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45

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65

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Class2 (71)

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55

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77

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Total (140)

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90

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75

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Fromthe results, we can find out that the learners pay a lot of attention to thequality of teacher talk. The teacher talk plays the function of model and alsois the process of child’s L2 acquisition. In total, there are 75 percentsconcerning the quality of teacher talk, so it is obvious that the giveninformation is the most important one in learners’ learning. With the basicview, it is necessary and important to provide students with higher quality ofteacher talk with enough information. From this aspect, it is obvious that thehigh quality of teacher talk plays an important role in learner input.

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According to the view of Ellis (1990), the rateof teacher talk is one feature of input. Chaudron also proved that teachersoften reduce their rate of speaking when they are teaching L2 learners in orderto improve their level of receiving. But based on the survey, we can find outthat there are problems in these aspects showing as table 5.2

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Table5.2 the results concerning the speed andpause of teacher talk

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Class

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Pause

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Speed

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Short

Long

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Right

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Quick

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Slow

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Right

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N

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%

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%

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N

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%

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N

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%

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N

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%

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Class1

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25

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62.5

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10

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25

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5

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12.5

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20

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50

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5

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12.5

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15

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37.5

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Class2

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28

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70

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6

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15

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6

15

24

60

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6

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15

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10

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25

Class3

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22

55

8

20

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10

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25

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20

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50

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8

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20

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12

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30

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Class4

75

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62.5

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24

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20

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21

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17.5

64

53

19

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16

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37

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31

Fromthe data, 62.5 percents of the students think that the time of pause is short.64 percents of them think that the speed of the teacher speech is too quick. Itindicates that there are many lower-level students. Most of the learners cannotcatch up with the teacher. Only a few of them can catch what the teacher said.And most of them cannot understand the teacher .We know that teacher talk isused to transfer the information, instruct the students and give feedback tothe learner.   So thisphenomenon is very harmful for the learner input. In accordance with thelearner’s level of proficiency, the language teacher would slow down and reducetheir rate of speaking. Learners would be helped to process input when theteacher does so.

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Accordingto Ellis (1990), vocabulary and syntactic complexity are included in thefeatures of input. There are adjustments and variations in the complexity ofteacher talk in the aspect of vocabulary and syntactic. Teachers vary theirlexis according to learner’s level. The teachers often tend to use easiervocabulary and sentence structure to explain the more difficult vocabulary andgrammatical structures. The survey of this essay just proves theses aspectsshowing as table5.3

Table5.3 the results concerning on the modification and comprehension of teachertalk

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Questions

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Yes

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(%)

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No

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(%)

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Q16

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96

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4

Q17

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90

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10

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Q18

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86

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14

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Fromthe data, 96 percents of students think that it is easier for learning aftercomprehension. 90 percents of them believe that it is easier for learning afterthe teacher modified it.86 percents of the students think that they can learn alot of things from the comprehension and modified teacher talk.  The modification and comprehension ofteacher talk is so important that teachers must often use the strategies ofmodifying vocabulary, modifying grammar and modifying discourse.

1)The teacher talk plays the model and the process of acquisition. Teacher talkshould be correct, including the standard pronunciation and correct grammar.

(2)In foreign language teaching and learning classroom, teachers should pause andchange the speed in accordance with the learners’ proficiency level. In doingso, it provides enough time for the learners to understand what the teacher hassaid and hence to the comprehension. At the same time, the teachers can checkthe learners’ situation of understanding, and then change the teachingstrategies in time.

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(3)The teachers must often use the strategies of modifying vocabulary, modifyinggrammar and modifying discourse.

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Withthe development of language acquisition studies, many scholars began to shifttheir attention to input that the learners hear or receive and from which he orshe can learn. Teacher talk, used by the teacher, is a very important part ofinput. In the context of China, almost all the learners learn English throughclasses. English is learned as a type of input. So teacher talk is of crucialimportant in language classroom. It is not only for the effective management ofthe classroom, but also for the process of language acquisition. Teacher talkis the medium to achieve the teaching objective. To a large extent, a class issuccessful or not depends on the quality or effectiveness of teacher talk.

The findings from this study have a number of implicationsfor foreign language teaching. Studies like this can raise foreign languageteacher’s awareness of how important of teacher talk. Teacher talk is themedium of teaching. So teachers should be more conscious of the importance ofteacher talk. This study also points out that the foreign language learners in theChinese context also have the environment to learn well if the teacher talk hashigh quality. They also can learn through imitation and practice. 

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Accordingto Freeman (1998), teachers must first become aware of their teacher talk, butnot apply knowledge or skills they have learned. This also means that the morecomprehensible input available to the learners will be better.

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However,classroom teaching is a complicated process. Teacher talk is a part of theprocess. There are a lot of factors that will influence learner input. Forexample, learners’ individual difference (e.g. sex, age, emotion, study strategy,character and etc.), the interaction between the teacher and students, thecultural difference and so on. These are the problems for others studies.

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Allright, D. & K. Bailey. 1991. Focus on the Language Classroom: An Introductionto. Classroom Research for LanguageTeachers [M]. Cambridge: CUP

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Chaudron, 1983. Classroom oriented research in second language acquisition [C].

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Chaudron, 1988. Second Language Classrooms: Research on Teaching and Learning [M].New York: Cambridge University Press.

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Cook, 1996.Languageand Input in the L2 Classroom. SecondLanguage Learning and Teaching. [A]

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Ellis, 1984. Understanding Second Language Acquisition [M]. Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press.

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Ellis, 1990. Instructed Second Language Acquisition [M].Oxford: Blackwell.

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Freeman, 1998. “Teacher Training, Development,and Decision Making: A Model of. Teaching and Related Strategies for LanguageTeacher Education.” [J]

Kreshen, 1985. The Input Hypothesis: Issues andImplications. [A]

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Long, 1983. Does second language instruction makes a difference? A review of theresearch question. [J]. 

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Nunan, 1991, Language Teaching Methodology [M].Cambridge University Press.

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Questionnaire on Teacher Talk

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The following are some questions about your opinionsof your teacher talk. This is just for a research purpose. There is no ‘right’r‘wrong’answer.At the same time, you are not required to sign your name on it. So you areasked to answer the questions honestly.

For the question 1-15, you should just choose oneanswer A, B, C or D, which stand for different degree: A=a lot; B=few:C=sometimes; D=never. For the question 16-20, you just asked to choose “yes”or “no”.

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1.     Do you think that teacher talkis of crucial important for your foreign language learning?

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2.     Is your English teacher’spronunciation very well?

3.     Does your English teachers’speechsounds like the radios?

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4.     Can you improve your listeningskills at class?

5.      Is your teacher’s speech clear?

6.     Does the teacher talk have lotsof grammar mistakes?

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7.     Is the teacher talk difficultfor you?

8.     Is the level of teacher talkhigher than your proficiency?

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9.     Can you learn a lot of thingsfrom the teacher talk, such as new vocabulary or useful expressions?

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10.  Doesyour teacher try to modify or simplify the difficult points for you?

11.  Doesyou teacher often pause when she or he speaks?

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12.  Doesyour teacher pause too long?

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13.  Doyou think your teacher speaks quickly?

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14.  Willyour teacher slow down when she or he gives you instructions?

15.  Doesyour teacher often change the speed of speaking?

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16.  Doyou think that it is easier for learning after comprehension?

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17.  Doyou think it is easier after the teacher modify it?

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18.  Canyou learn a lot of things from the modified and comprehension teacher talk?

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Interview the Teachers on Teacher Talk

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1. Do you agree that teacher talk is of crucialimportant for learner input?

2. To what extent do you think that the qualityof teacher talk influences the input?

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3.Do you think what the teacher should do to improve the effect of teacher talkduring the foreign language teaching?

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